Extra-thematic FEs are ones that combine with many other frames, either taking them into their scope and embedding them in a larger context, or elaborating the descriptions of participants or the setting. Although we have called these entities frame elements, there is a sense in which this is a shorthand. Frame-elements proper identify exactly the parts of a sentence that pick out sub-parts of the scene introduced by a target. In contrast, these elements explicitly introduce an independent scene. There is a very real sense in which the extra-thematic FEs are introduced by separate, constructional targets.
Since, however, the constructions that introduce extra-thematic FEs are so tightly bound together with the structures introduced by regular targets, we believe that it is appropriate to annotate them as if from the point-of-view of the target. In some cases an extra-thematic FE is introduced in a core grammatical position like the object (see, for example, Recipient). Also, an FE that is extra-thematic in one frame may be peripheral or core in another frame. For instance, the frame element Role is core in the Replacing frame, but extra-thematic in the Intentionally_create frame. Moreover, several FEs have extra-thematic as well as core and peripheral uses that will be differentiated in future releases. The relevant sub-sections point these out.
To recognize their somewhat independent status, the section that follows lists (1) the meaning and usage of the extra-thematic elements, followed by (2) the structures (syntactic or lexical) that serve to evoke them, and in some cases (3) corrective updates comparing policy at the time of the data release to the current policy (as described in this section).
The list of extra-thematic FEs given here is not exhaustive. Although there are many others, the ones listed here are the most widely occurring. We have in a few cases listed peripheral FEs for comparison. For instance, in section 8.1.1, we discuss the peripheral FE Duration in comparison to the two extra-thematic FEs Period_of_iterations and Duration_of_final_state.
Since some of the entries below describe changes in policy that have not been implemented in time for Release 1.3, we have adopted the convention of marking FEs that are not yet in use with *, and marking FEs that are to be phased out with #. Many of the FEs have not been added to all of the appropriate frames as of yet.
FrameNet distinguishes several kinds of time span-related frame elements. The basic notion of duration is covered by the eponymous peripheral frame element Duration.
In Release 1.3, the frame element label Duration is in several frames still applied to two other time-span related frame elements that are both conceptually distinct from Duration and extra-thematic, rather than peripheral. We plan to convert a relatively small number of existing Duration labels to the more specific labels Period_of_iterations and Duration_of_final_state in the release following Release 1.3. Note that the latter two label types iterations already exist in some frames but not in others where they are needed.
This frame element has peripheral status in state or activity frames.
(1) Cells were treated with chemicals [for 30 min] at 37 C or as stated and then incubated for the indicated times before isolation of total RNA . (2) I have known it [for years]. (3) They had a [short] conference off by the stable.
This FE is minimally distinct from Duration and Duration_of final_state in that the clause described is conveyed to be iterative. Period_of_iterations can co-occur with either the peripheral FE Duration or the extra-thematic FE Duration_of_final_state (although these cannot occur together).
This FE modifies a clause with an iterative interpretation, which may be signified by the simple present tense on the main verb.
(4) The two writers talked about a joint project [for 10 years]. (5) I have been communicating with the Minister [since 1988] on that problem. (6) [For many years], he walked to the forum alone.
(7) The previous day President Ranasinghe Premadasa had refused to extend the [seven-day] cessation of hostilities which the government announced on Jan. 3. (8) If you place it there [for extended periods], your monitor may suffer permanent damage.
(9) Lilly Foley never missed her [weekly] hair-do and manicure . (10) The scribes copied the scripture [every 80 years]. (11) Those affected may be vomiting [many times a day] and may also be abusing laxatives .
(12) The ferry that Kenneth was on was hijacked [twice]. (13) Clashes broke out [several times] because Kenneth had been arrested. (14) An Agoura Jills cigar store was robbed [twice] last week. (15) Earlier, Private Lee Clegg (22) told the court he had fired [three times] in the vicinity of the car driver's head.
(16) Four of the five protagonists of this story - Greco-Macedonians , Romans , Jews and Celts - came together [for the first time] in the Hellenistic period. (17) She really ought to rehearse that presentation [again], she thought.
(18) No deaths or injuries, but a few hands waving feebly [from under the pile of bodies] indicated that rescue was required. (Currently, examples of this sort are wrongly annotated as Source in the Body movement frame!) (19) The cottage still looks very much the same [from the outside]. (20) The witnesses saw the robbery [from the their car]. (21) Does anyone e-mail the office [from a phone booth]? (22) Smithers finished his work [from home]. (23) He was suspected of running a business [from behind bars]. (24) I couldn't believe that he could hit me [from between the goal posts] !
(25) The mousse was chilled [around the edges]. (26) The cloth was dried [around the edges]. (27) All the walls were black [on the inside] with fluorescent pink skylines of places like New York painted on. (28) The gazebo was screened by a hedge [on one side]. (29) He didn't paint it [on the bottom]. (30) This article is terse [in the beginning]. (31) The batlith is a bit rough [between the handles].
(32) The horse pitched the rider [on his head]. (33) Quilp had shut himself in, stood [on his head] before the door, then walked on his hands to the back and stood on his head there.
(34) Bill baked [Kim] a cake for Arbor Day. (35) Can you knit [me] a sweater? (36) The customer had bought a book [for his sister].
(37) Someone even mowed the lawn [for Camile and her family]. (38) My cart arrived yesterday and my husband assembled it [for me] today.
(39) Every pet I've had has croaked [on me]. (40) The volume button broke [on me] the first time, so I returned it and got a new one.
Update: This Frame Element is currently not defined in any frame but will be used in future releases.
(41) Self_motion: When we were hunters, two and a half million years ago roaming round [with the monkeys], only 15-20 per cent of our diet was fat. (42) Departing: He had emigrated from Hampshire, [with 26-year-old girlfriend Tracey Farmer] to escape the recession and start a new life. (43) Placing: Pat put the butter in the fridge [along with the margarine]. (44) He was arrested [with his brother] on 8th November 2002. (45) [Along with two assisting officers], Smithers arrested all twenty of the much-sought traffickers.
(46) Self_motion: "Come," he said, and the rabbit hopped [after him]. (47) Self_motion: She became highly indignant if we walked [ahead of her]. (48) Communication_manner: She shouted angrily [after him], but he paid no heed.
(49) All of which was done without informing me [as your lawyer] which has now resulted in contempt of court proceedings being instituted against you. (50) [As your friend], I demand that you go out on stage and wow them like I know you can.
(51) Smithers stormed out of the office, [his temples throbbing with rage]. (52) Jess grabbed the bag and walked out [with her head held defiantly high]. (53) [Weighing not much more than a portable at 6.5 pounds], the LT260 also features 2100 ANSI lumens and sharp XGA resolution. (54) Sue came in [holding a black candle in her right hand]. (55) "One of the most common things volunteers will say when they come back is that they went over to help and teach, but came back [being the ones that learned the most]-they were the ones being taught." (56) Coming into it, I think I was in a tough situation because I probably had more to lose than I had to gain. I came in [being the top kicker], I came in making 90 percent of my field goals in the last two or three years, so I came in with a lot to lose. (57) Brynda fell back, [her face pale with exhaustion and pain]. (58) [Wearing my feather cap] I was spotted immediately by Bill. (59) [Growing nervous due to the late hour, and not having heard any sounds emanating from the room], the secret service agents rap on the door. (60) [Being a wittarian], John had to bite his words before speaking.
(61) [Amazingly], the WiX installer is turning out to be almost entirely pleasant. (62) [Oddly], there was a very small earthquake in Miami today. (63) I haven't found much of use in MSDN, [which surprised me]. (64) In the first ever live Soccer AM ping-pong championship, Tim beat Gazza 11-6, [which was revenge for his previous 10-0 defeat]! (65) Awaiting execution, Peace finally confessed to the murder of PC Cock, [providing the detailed evidence to persuade the authorities of Habron's innocence].
(66) A large piece of the glacier fell suddenly into the sea, [a stunning display of Nature's might]. (67) [In a shocking turn of events], the free iPods pyramid scheme turns out to be a pyramid scheme. (68) [In an uncanny quirk of fate], he and his current dog were visiting the animal hospital the same day I found it necessary to say a final "Farewell" to Dudley. (69) A large piece of the glacier fell suddenly into the sea, [in an amazing display of Nature's might]. (70) [In reprisal], the BDR and the local Muslim settlers raided Sukhnachari. (71) Justin Hawkins, frontman for The Darkness, pierces himself [as punishment for his own transgressions]. (72) [As a result of the war], a growing percentage of Muslims see serious threats to Islam. (73) If you send people home [for punishment], let them have their pay at least.
Re_encoding phrases differ from those of Event_description in that with the former the state of affairs of the target constitutes the state of affairs of the modifier. Constituents labeled as Re_encodings allow paraphrases of the form "Event of modifier consists of Event of target". For instance, (70) can be paraphrased as in (74):
(74) The reprisal consisted of the BDR and the local Muslim settlers raiding Sukhnachari.
Some Event_description phrases allow similar paraphrases but in principle Event_description phrases need not allow them and very often they do not. While (75) may be an adequate paraphrase for (64), above, (76) is not a good candidate paraphrase for (63).
(75) His revenge for his previous 10-0 defeat consisted of beating Gazza 11-6 in the first ever live Soccer AM ping-pong championship. (76) ?*My surprise consisted of not finding much of use in MSDN.
We maintain that the acceptable paraphrase in (75) is just an accident of the fact that the predicate of the sentence modifier in (64) is revenge, a noun which can take a Means phrase as subject in copular clauses. (76) is not a possible paraphrase for (63) because the noun surprise (in contexts of unintentional surprising) only takes a Cause rather than a Means frame element as subject.
The distinction between Event_description and Re_encoding is particularly clear in the case of relative clauses. This formal type occurs only in Event_description phrases and it allows for the two events to be completely distinct, which is not possible with Re_encoding FEs. Thus, (77) involves an Event_description and no reformulation with a Re_encoding construction is felicitous (cf. 78).
(77) Thereafter she became pregnant, [which was discovered by her parents on July 24, 1941 Event_description]. (78) *[In the discovery by her parents on July 24 1941] she thereafter became pregnant.
(79) Not just red light, but dim red light. < 3 lux, and you have to be sure not to directly shine it into an animal's eye. I've worked [under those conditions] for years. (80) Place the apples into a greased and floured pan and bake [at high heat]. (81) [Under those weather conditions], the trapped food will form brilliant purple and red chemicals in the leaves. (82) [In this weather] the climb was very difficult. (83) His car caught fire [at that temperature]. (84) She entered in grand style [with everybody looking at her]. (85) They continued [with Chris in charge of the hockey club]
(86) This program will not survive [with everybody going in different directions]. (87) What was it like going into Bastogne, [with everybody going the other way]? (88) We are all living [under Californian law]. (89) His assests were seized [under Section 9.3 of the Uniform Code].
(90) Every single thing I said [in the election campaign] about interest rates was right. (91) [In the wake of the war], a growing percentage of Muslims see serious threats to Islam. (92) Two people were killed [in the accident]. (93) I passed through this village [on my journey to Castleton]. (94) I recall Ron coming home with red hots which I detested, so [on my turn] I picked out some candy shaped like pork chops, potatoes, and peas. (95) Printed materials will not be distributed [at the meeting].
The Containing_events that formally are in-PPs may appear similar to Re_encoding FEs. They are, however, a separate notion since they do not allow a paraphrase saying that the event denoted by the target fills a role in the event expressed in the extra-thematic phrase.
(96) His heart failed the next day and somehow, this letter got lost [in the turmoil]. (97) *The turmoil was that this letter got lost./The turmoil consisted of this letter getting lost.
The label Containing_event is different from simple Time expressions (98- 101) whether they anchor an event relative to another event or to a clock time. Even when Time FEs make reference to an event, this event is considered purely in terms of when it took place. As such, the expressions involving events could be adequately understood if the events were replaced by the time periods in which the events took place; purely clock-time rephrasings of Containing_events are clearly not equivalent, however. Cf. (102) and the non-equivalent (103).
(98) You can do laundry here [during your stay]. (99) We pray [before the meeting begins]. (100) The ice sculpture melted [while it was under hot water]. (101) [At 8 o'clock], the butler will serve tea. (102) Twenty people were injured in the avalanche. (103) ?Twenty people were injured between 7:05 and 7:07 AM.
(104) Carnaval '78 packed in over a thousand bodies, sweating and gyrating [to the drumming of Austin's first Carnaval group]. (105) She danced [to the drumming of ancestors and the rattle of elders]. (106) Hearts Beat [to the Rhythm of Biological Clocks] (107) Lily's best smile fades as she quietly eats her dinner [to the hum of Daddy's voice on the phone].
(108) [With each passing month], we discover more and more about how to prevent cancer. (109) The most recent study found that Okinawans eating a more traditional diet did not gain weight [with age]. (110) A country's standard of living increases [with the educational attainment of women]-or is it the other way around?
(111) The lavender is in the fridge [because the packet said to sow them in 30-40 degree temperatures]. (112) The packet's saying ... caused the lavender to be in the fridge. (113) [In the nebula Place], you move really fast . (114) Plants grow really well [when you pay attention to them Time]. (115) The crowded office was empty [with both of the other occupants gone Circumstances]. (116) [Wearing my feather cap Depictive] I was spotted immediately by Bill. (117) In the event your PPT file gets erased [on accident], the computer crashes, or the projector doesn't work, be prepared to go on with your talk without it. (118) He worked there for several years, becoming an author [almost by chance].
In most cases, the frame element Reason has been applied to constituents expressing a state of affairs to which the Agent is responding in performing the action indicated by the target.
(119) Listen, I just mug people ['cause I got mouths to feed] - nothing personal. (120) North was dismissed [for gross mismanagement of funds].
In some frames, the frame element label Reason has been used for situations involving more immediate causation. The verb decay in example (121) belongs to the Rotting frame, which does not involve an agent-like participant. The adjective tired in (122) belongs to the Biological_urge frame, which concerns internal experiences of one's body state that are not under conscious control. In (123), which is from the Sounds frame, the appropriate frame element to use is External_cause, about which see below.
(121) Typically, the front top six teeth will decay because of the way the child has sucked on its bottle. (122) Jen is tired [because she gave birth last night]. (123) Brian let out a hoarse screech [at each cut].
There is a further use of the FE Reason, with PPs headed by for describing an activity which is to be balanced by the action of the main clause, as in (124). Such examples will be annotated with the new FE *Reciprocation.
(124) The DEA took his license away [for prescribing large quantities of opiates to his chronic pain patients].
(For other deprecated uses of Reason, see Section 8.9.1 below.)
Update: Although frames newly created since Release 1.2 no longer use an extra-thematic FE Reason but instead feature the now preferred Explanation label, there are still many frames in which the Reason frame element has not been converted to Explanation.
This frame element has been used to introduce a causing event or enabling state that causes a state to hold or an inchoative event to occur. The FE is also used for events or states that prevent other states or events. In some frames, Cause also covers entities that are centrally involved in events or states causing, enabling, or preventing other events or states.
(125) Smithers became tired [from all the work he'd been doing]. (126) The mop is drenched [from the water you spilled].
(127) I was doubled over [with uncontrollable fits of laughter] as I contemplated the idea of Kyle being non-partisan. (128) Everywhere there lay scattered arms, corpses, and mangled limbs, and the earth reeked [with blood]. (129) Blackbeard shook [with laughter]. (130) In the afternoons, the sirius booth rocked [with live performances] from musicians of all genres.
In theory, frames that had an FE Internal_cause should also have FEs called External_cause. However, the frames with an Internal_cause FE defined are much more numerous than those which have an External_cause FE defined, even though at some point we had the notion that the two FEs should always be paired. Internal_cause frame elements are found in: Body_movement, Communication_noise, Communication_response, Facial_expression, Hostile_encounter, Judgment_communication, Make_noise, Making_faces, Questioning, Renunciation, Reveal_secret, Self_motion, Sounds, and Statement. External_cause FEs occur in these frames: Body_movement, Facial_expression, Making_faces, Self_motion. Some expressions like (131)-(132) look like External_cause or Internal_cause but consist of from-PPs, and should be annotated as Explanation:
(131) I shivered [from the cold]. (132) He let out a deep, hungry growl as she bucked and gasped [from the shocking sensation], her eyes like a frightened doe's.
PPs headed by from should be annotated as Explanation, given the formal and functional similarity of the construction below:
(133) She died [from malaria].
(134) She checked a giggle [of hysteria]. (135) Kim frowned [in concentration]. (136) Kim threw her hands up [in despair]. (137) ??She stole his car [in anger]. (138) She stole his car [out of anger]. (139) I was begining to think that I was the only person to see a horse kick [out of anger].
(140) Stumpy tail wagging , the wire-haired terrier trotted [from force of ingrained habit] to the back door where his lead hung on a hook. (141) In the past, a narrow path along the cliff led to the cave, but it collapsed [from erosion and rock falls].
(142) They danced [at the sound of her voice]. (143) Andreyev smirked [at the old man's passion]. (144) As with Ben Johnson most South Africans smirked openly [at these revelations] . (145) Glancing up, she caught Ross's nod and warm smile of approval [at the efforts she was making to reassure Emma and Sophie about their parents' condition].
(146) [Spotting a thrush on the lawn], the cat leapt down and gave chase. (147) Noreen O'Neil looked good as she pranced across that stage [to the catchy Irish tune]. (148) [By a lucky accident] we had already trekked ( with Mohammed ) from Imlil westwards to the Nfis, discovering superb trails through a bold landscape.
(149) Many teachers favor charter schools [although their unions don't]. (150) [Nevertheless], it would have been interesting had he won in '92. (151) [A lack of witty sayings notwithstanding], I can Safely say that i am currently appalled by the prospect that one's ears and nose may continue to grow throughout adulthood. (152) Movie industry revenue is booming [despite the current level of piracy]. (153) I received a confirmation and order number the same day, [despite the store being closed for religious holidays]. (154) [Although no longer a minister], Smithers still officiated at weddings.
(155) [As if to insult our intelligence further] each joke is followed with the words, "get it" just in case we don't. (156) We observe ourselves 'doing the act', [as if on stage]. (157) We find ourselves making the point articulate [as if for another listener than those in front of us]. (158) You have to negotiate [as if relationships matter].
(159) I had to stay up and read all night [for my sins of previous omission]. (160) He gave me a new watch [for mowing his lawn].
Update: The FE Reciprocation is used in a handful of frames as of Release 1.3.
This frame element selects some gradable attribute and modifies the expected value for it.
(161) That photo of the prime minister is [very] nice.
Some uses of the label Degree are ambiguous between just specifying a value for an attribute that holds for a particular participant and specifying how much of a group or a single entity participates in the specified state or relation.
(162) The medication should have [fully] cured him.
Example (162) may specify the degree of recovery to full health for the whole person or it may specify how much of the person has been fully cured. Consider the continuations in (162') and (162").
A clear case in which Degree is used to refer to the involvement of a so-called "incremental theme" in an event is (163).
(163) My uncle likes to [fully] immerse cookies into his coffee.
Other uses such as (164) and (165) below exhibit a related but slightly different construal. In those examples, the scale that is involved is the proportion of a group (figuring as a frame element) that participates in a specified state or relation. These uses are comparable to cases of quantifier float such as (166). However, they cannot replace all instances of quantifier float with the same meaning. We will use the label Degree for cases like (164) and (165).55
(164) He replaced the 6761 models [entirely] with about half as many 6800s. (165) In the 1950s the municipality bought 87% of the shares and it owns them [entirely] today. (166) This is the third pet he has lost in a two year span (we acquired them [all] when the kids were young).
Another group of uses consists of cases where the prototypicality of a specific event or relation for its type is evaluated.
(167) There were unsubstantiated allegations of [serious] misbehaviour while Scotland were in Berne for the first World Cup qualifying Group I tie against Switzerland. (168) The townspeople engaged in a [full-scale] free-for-all.
We also keep uses like (167) and (168) within the range of what the frame element Degree covers.
In the annotation of Release 1.3, there is still some confusion of Degree frame elements with Frequency, which is in particular due to expressions such as a lot, a little, and little. Consider the following examples:
(169) I've carved a butter knife with it, spoons, built shelters, feather sticks, prepared dinner, chopped down trees, split wood and sharpened it [a lot]. (170) Your car breaks down [a lot]. (171) My cat sleeps [a lot]. (172) He talks [a lot]. (173) So, he says, he sleeps [little]. "I follow the words of Napoleon," says Shen. "Anyone who sleeps more than four hours a night is a fool."
Examples (169)-(170) are readily understood as saying that events of a certain type happen frequently.56 Examples (171)-(173) are ambiguous: they could either be understood as indicating that an event happens frequently or that the specified events go on for a long overall duration. The specified duration may however be achieved over just a few occasions: the cat in (171) may sleep for 12 hours straight every day, but then be awake without interruption for the rest of the day. Example (173) in its context seems to refer primarily to duration.
At the moment, there is no settled policy about what to do with expressions like a lot and little. We may tag some instances as Frequency and others as Duration, as appropriate, or we may introduce a new FE, say, Amount, to apply to the non-Frequency uses of a lot.
In some cases, there are constructions that we don't label as Extra-Thematic FEs of a target. The primary cases noted so far are speech-act (174) and epistemic (175) constructions, which combine freely with a virtually unlimited set of targets and take a variety of different FEs as their arguments.
(174) If you're still hungry, there's turkey in the fridge. (175) If their teeth were long and sharp, they ate meat.
In each of these examples, the clause headed by if expresses a *Condition of a covert predication, in (174) a speech act, in (175) a chain of reasoning. In these cases, we now take it to be improper to annotate the *Condition in such examples with respect to a target in the main clause, since the frame element really belongs to a predicate that contains the main clause as a separate frame element.
This is a construction which evokes the Statement frame. It takes the main clause (whether a statement or question) as an utterance and labels it as Message, binds the actual speaker of the sentence to the role Speaker, and then allows the expression of a number of other frame elements, including Explanation (formerly Reason) (177), *Condition, *Concessive (178), and Purpose (179). This construction is used, in effect, to express the Speaker's reason for making a particular speech act at a particular point in the exchange, as in (176).
(176) There's some fried rice in the kitchen, [since you're hungry].
Mostly, such phrases have been left unannotated, but in the case of the former FE Reason especially, we have incorrectly labelled them.
(177) I promised not to reveal this, but [since you're holding a gun to my head], Kathy took your stapler. (178) [Though you might not be interested], a swap-meet's gonna happen here next week. (179) [Just so you know], 666 is embedded in every UPC barcode.
In the above examples, the indicated phrases are not properly frame elements of the target and, hence, should not have been labeled relative to it.
This construction evokes the Evidence frame, with the main clause as the Proposition and a subordinate Explanation, Circumstances, or *Condition FE construed (on the second layer) as a Support which allows or demands the truth of the Proposition. Consider examples (180) and (181). Example (181) belongs to the Likelihood frame, where the only Reason frame elements that occur are of this (incorrectly annotated) evidential type.
(180) John hasn't left yet [because his car is in the garage]. (181) It is probable that he was indeed in a state of shock, [since the nature of shock is to suspend ordinary or familiar reactions].
One test by which we can identify phrases as Circumstances is to try to compound the nominal head of the candidate phrase into a phrase headed by the noun condition. Such paraphrases are not possible with all phrases of the same ontological type, as the contrast between (182) and (183) shows.
(182) This plant grows well [in sandy soil] => This plant grows well [in sandy soil conditions]. (183) I met your mother [in France] =/=> I met your mother [in France/French conditions].
Another test consists of presenting the candidate semi-causal state of affairs first and then resuming it with the phrase under those/these conditions (or something similar), as seen below.
(184) [At low temperatures], the metal becomes very fragile. [Under these conditions] it also conducts poorly. (185) I met your mother in France. #[Under these conditions], we fell in love. (186) The animals have been cared for by humans as infants. [Under such conditions], orangutan reintroduction takes a long time.
Another test that works for a subset of Circumstances is to try to form a conditional clause with the Time, Place, etc., phrase part of the protasis clause and the rest of the original clause forming the main clause, as shown in the pair of examples (187) and (188).
(187) Most begonias grow well [in partial shade]. (188) If they are in in partial shade, most begonias grow well.
While these tests allowed us to reliably detect special semi-causal, concessive, or conditional interpretations of Time, Place, etc., phrases, study of the annotated examples and reflection on the system of peripheral and extra-thematic FEs led us to conclude that these interpretations arise pragmatically (i.e. there is no overt lexical/constructional material that reliably signals their use), and that the basic use of the frame elements should not require such implications. When such implications are present, we will record them via second layer annotation with one of the extra-thematic frame elements Explanation, *Concessive or *Condition. Thus, in example (182), the phrase in sandy soil would carry a peripheral Place label on the first annotation layer and the extra-thematic *Condition label on the second FE annotation layer. Similarly, in (189), the inspiration for (186), the when-clause would be labeled as the peripheral FE Time on the first layer and with a *Condition label on the second annotation layer.
(189) But Kuenzer points out that even orangutan reintroduction takes a long time [when the animals have been cared for by humans as infants].
Let us now elaborate on the two major contexts that induce a semi-causal interpretation of Time, Place, and Circumstances phrases. Contrast is one kind of context that promotes a causal reading of Time, Place, and Circumstances phrases, as shown in (190) and (191).
(190) We traveled {slow} {in the nebula}. Travel was {quicker} {between Arcturus and Betelgeuse}. (191) {During the Depression}, he got a {lot} of money for them. {Afterwards}, he got very {little}, and a guy claimed he had to pay to sell 'em.
Although there are many different uses for contrast (e.g. I gave Harry the book and Sally the CD), in some cases, especially when one of the contrasted elements denotes a scalar and the other denotes something easily interpretable as independently manipulable, contrast can give rise to a facilitative interpretation, which is the case in (190) and (191), above. Of course, the contrast set need not be explicitly evoked, as shown in (192).
(192) A: How much do you think are all these carpets worth?-B: Not sure. But I know that my uncle paid very {little} money for them {during the Depression}.
The second major context in which Time, Place, and Parameter phrases are often interpreted as specifying Explanations are generic sentences, such as (189), above, which describes how the world works. Although in some cases generics are definitional, generally generic sentences often imply a facilitatory or causative effect of implicit or explicit Place, Time, or Circumstances etc., on the occurrence of the event, or more specifically the occurrence of the event with a particular subset of the participants. However, generic sentences do not automatically imply that a Time, Place, or Circumstances phrase has an additional causal, concessive, or conditional force. To illustrate, (193) simply reports regularity, but it does not imply that the conditions facilitated or caused the regularity of behavior.
(193) [In Singapore Place], they drive on the left. =/=> [Under Singaporean conditions], they drive on the left.